A king who executed his rivals was "strong" or "decisive"; an empress who did the same was "hysterical," "bloodthirsty," or "atrocious." Much of the "gore" in their biographies comes from secondary sources written decades or even centuries after their deaths, intended to serve as cautionary tales against female leadership. The Allure of the Dark Empress
But beneath the tales of blood and excess lies a complex question: were these women truly monsters, or were they victims of a historical narrative written by their enemies? The Architecture of Cruelty atrocious empress
Catherine was a mother trying to keep a crumbling dynasty together amidst civil war. Her "cruelty" was often a desperate attempt to find a middle ground between warring religious factions. 3. Empress Irene of Athens (Byzantine Empire) A king who executed his rivals was "strong"